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Eliminating Barriers to Cross-Cultural Interaction through Curricular Interventions Simply by David Dankwa-Apawu (Lecturer) Ghana Institute of Journalism G. O. Container GP 667 Accra, Ghana +233208704133 +233302228336 [email, protected]
company. uk you ABSTRACT With the world fast-becoming a global community, communicating around cultures is now an inevitable reality. On one hand, cross-cultural interaction or intercultural communication gives a fine opportunity to foster global peace and prosperity even as we mine the value of cultural diversity.
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On the other hand, it can present unpleasant consequences in the event not well managed. The latter seems more widespread in our universe today due to the barriers cultural selection imposes upon intercultural connection. Intercultural or perhaps cross-cultural communication barriers just like anxiety, concern, stereotyping, and ethnocentrism result from inadequate cultural knowledge and the lack of intercultural communicative expertise. Eliminating these kinds of barriers will demand adequate trained in intercultural connection and contact with cultures outside ours.
The college provides the finest motivation, buildings, and resources for training or socializing our younger technology therefore this kind of paper proposes a number of curricular interventions the college can put into practice to provide learners to overcome intercultural communication barriers. These concours include the usage of multicultural education within our schools, the development of literature and cultural research as themes, the use of expansive language teaching approach in teaching dialect, and the make use of the new media in the classroom.
The justification (for these interventions) presented with this paper is usually drawn mainly from printed accounts and exploratory ethnographic studies. INTRODUCTION Intercultural interaction or cross-cultural communication is a relatively new discipline of analyze, yet it includes generated a lot of interest. Research in this area have been diverse however interdisciplinary, making it possible to link intercultural communication to a broad variety of procedures such organization, sociology, anthropology, linguistics, and psychology. Studies in intercultural 2 ommunication gained prominence after work by scientists and linguists like Hall and Equipo to website link language, traditions, and conversation (Kramsch, 2001). Initial analysis in the place focused on developing guidelines or perhaps principles intended for training people who were engaged in multinational businesses, international diplomacy, and missionary activities (Kramsch, 2001). Today, however , many new grounds, regarding research approaches, have been damaged, and more and even more theories have been developed to deepen the understanding of intergroup communication.
As an example, through numerous studies it is possible to distinguish between intercultural and cross-cultural communication, together with the former directing on face-to-face communication between people of various national civilizations while the last mentioned involves the comparison of face-to-face communication throughout cultures (Gudykunst and Mody, 2001). But these two areas are two sides of your coin, and frequently the conditions are used alternately (Kramsch, 2001).
More than the groundbreaking work of early experts, global dynamics have amazingly made the field of cross-cultural or intercultural communication attractive. Today there is speedy internationalization of each institution and system within our world: school, religion, business, governance, and so on. This fast globalisation, becoming fuelled simply by unprecedented scientific advancement in transport and telecommunication, mean that guests of different ethnic backgrounds happen to be increasingly approaching one another to increase the value ethnical diversity presents.
But as we have face-to-face with individuals of different social backgrounds the process of working with our ethnic differences and harnessing the potential benefits of cultural diversity turns into enormous. Ethnical differences have got significant influence on our intercultural communication. These are the source of misconception, misinterpretation, three or more anxiety, and uncertainty, which ultimately lead to miscommunication (Stephan and Stephan, 2002: 127, Gudykunst, 2002, Gudykunst and Lee, 2002).
Studies in intercultural or cross-cultural communication are assisting shape a large number of facets of each of our human connection by attracting attention to the functions of verbal and non-verbal behaviour around cultures, the effect of tradition in creating meaning, the structure and communicative desired goals of discourses, and elements that influence our potential, or otherwise, to interact and interpret talk (Kramsch, 2001). Theories and empirical studies in intercultural communication have gotten serious significance for interpersonal action and social change (Rogers and Hart, 2002: 14).
It’s the purpose of this paper to justify the inclusion of activities that promote intercultural training in institution curriculums. This kind of paper suggests a number of activities or interventions the school may implement to help learners cope with the limitations inherent in intercultural conversation, and eventually render them to be effective communicators. The justification offered in this paper is driven mainly coming from published accounts and disovery ethnographic research.
KEY CONCEPTS Culture, Connection, and Intercultural Communication In studying intercultural communication various researchers have attempted to conceptualise culture and communication coming from various views in order to value their interrelationship. Generally, culture is conceptualised as a distributed way of life collectively developed and shared with a group of people and transmitted from generation to generation (Tubbs 4 and Moss, 1994).
Culture symbolizes many intricate elements such as beliefs, principles, language, political systems, and tools which in turn together give a group it is code or perhaps characteristics (Griffin, 2000, Tubbs and Tree, 1994). This code can be not imposed by one individual or a body. Alternatively, it is “socially constructed (by members that make up the group) and “historically transmitted (Philipsen, 1992, offered in Griffin, 2000: 390). More considerably, culture is owned with a group of people who also by consensus accept and share a common code, verbal or non-verbal, reflecting of particular values, values, customs, and so forth (Barnet and Lee, 2002).
Goodenough (1964) views traditions not regarding things or behaviour but in terms of your picture of things a lady form in their minds, and their models pertaining to perceiving, relating, and interpretation things and behaviour (cited in Barnet and Lee, 2002: 276). The affluence one could draw from all these meanings is the fact that every group is usually bound with a certain exceptional way of carrying out things and interpreting things or actions. Communication, though variously described, generally explains a process with which information is exchanged between two or more persons in a given context.
In the end, this process of exchanging information is destined by a purpose: that is, to lessen uncertainty and develop a prevalent understanding among the list of interactants (Barnett and Lee, 2002).
One well-liked conclusion is that cultural variability is the main predictor of how successful one can maintain any intercultural communication encounter. THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTION Gudykunst’s Stress and Uncertainness Management Unit Gudykunst and associates developed the stress and doubt management theory to explain what goes on when we speak with people of different cultural experience. The theory suggests that when interlocutors of different social backgrounds battle in face-to-face interactions, they are really confronted with concern (which Gudykunst describes while cognitive) and anxiety (affective) (Griffin, 2150: 396).
The uncertainty identifies our inability to explain actions and reactions of the “strangers we speak with. It illustrates how unsure we are about the interpretations we impute on the actions of the persons we speak with (Griffin, 2000). Anxiety, on the other hand, portrays each of our feeling of uneasiness and tension about what may possibly happen in the intercultural interaction encounter. The extent where we are affected by panic and uncertainness would determine how effective we might be in each of our intercultural interaction (Gudykunst, 2000). 6
Even though anxiety and uncertainty apply some effect on intra-group communication, their impact is definitely profound in intercultural conversation. Anxiety and uncertainty filtering the shared understanding that need to exist for making any interaction encounter effective. But anxiety and concern are not entirely negative. Somewhat they compel us to approach the communication with a level of “mindfulness, a planned thought within the communication method. In our state of concern and uneasiness, we continuously become conscious of our choices and in the future manage the communication scenarios to lower misunderstanding.
In intercultural interaction anxiety and uncertainty are heighten simply by cultural variability. If the variations between ethnicities are serious, anxiety and uncertainty will increase when ever members from the different cultural groups participate in intercultural connection. In a schematic representation Gudykunst demonstrates the underlying factors behind uncertainty and anxiety as motivational, understanding and skill factors. With this paper these kinds of factors provide relevant support for the requirement to incorporate various interventions in to our school curriculum to teach learners in intercultural conversation.
The skill factors contain our ability to empathise, tolerate ambiguities, modify communication, and gather suitable information. Knowledge of more than one point of view, similarities and differences, alternate interpretations are a couple of the knowledge factors relevant for effective intercultural communication. The motivational elements are needs, attraction, sociable bonds and openness to information. Clearly, all these factors are not divorced from the traditional aims of education that schools are established. Fundamentally society features vested in the school the obligation of 7 quipping the youthful generation with skills, understanding, and the correct motivation for dealing with personal and societal problems (Sadker and Sadker, 2003: 140, Ornstein, 1995). Therefore, it is not misplaced if the institution realigns their curriculum to allow for interventions that might train young people in intercultural communication, an expanding challenge through this globalised universe. Through curricular interventions suggested in this daily news learners might acquire the essential skills, knowledge, and determination to manage their very own intercultural conversation in more methods. Training in ntercultural, among other things, unearths learners to barriers including anxiety, doubt, stereotypes, and ethnocentrism natural in intercultural communication and equips scholars with abilities such as mindfulness necessary for handling intercultural communication. This theory strongly support the need for training in intercultural conversation and in my own view the university has the space, time, positioning, and methods to offer this kind of training. Expansive Competence Hymes (1972) developed the theory of communicative competence to establish a link between language and traditions (Richards and Rogers, 1986: 69).
This kind of theory asserts that the two linguistic expertise and sociocultural or contextual knowledge are prerequisites for almost any effective intercultural communication (Richards and Rogers, 1986: 69). Communicative skills highlights the view outside the window that terminology and tradition are fiel. Therefore linguistic competence should go along with a commensurate cultural proficiency, that is, one described as communicatively competent must have both linguistic and ethnic competence.
Linguistic competence can be demonstrated in the grammatical expertise one offers, such as understanding of words, terms, and sentences and rules governing their combination in discourse. Ethnical competence, on the other hand, focuses on the cultural propriety of linguistic choices in a real eight communication come across. Different interpersonal situations need different exercises that are broadly defined. The competent communicator chooses the right linguistic forms that meet the cultural requirement of the context in which the interaction takes place.
In a few contexts in Ghana, for example, “Please can be described as polite marker not just intended for requests although all kinds of speech acts or discourse, especially with adults. Therefore , not necessarily uncommon to listen to expressions like “Please, Good morning, “Yes, Please, and “Please, my name is Kofi. The audio with communicative competence would have to vary his routines to fulfill the differences in cultural targets. If the same communicator meets a native Uk the above utilization of “Please would be avoided.
The idea of communicative competence deepens enough credence to the necessitate training in intercultural communication inside our schools through direct and indirect curricular interventions. Usually, our college system offers focused on teaching learners to acquire grammatical expertise. This daily news calls for a commensurate training in contextual competence. Such skills will include understanding of the different targets different cultural contexts can charge on several communication situations. This know-how is vital in reducing stress and doubt which are natural barriers in intercultural connection.
Recent research in intercultural communication firmly support the advantages of intercultural training of staff, both home-based and intercontinental, in regions of cultural variety and intercultural communication (Albert, 1994). The position of this daily news is that the college (from the fundamental to the tertiary levels) is actually a better placed to offer this kind of training. 9 BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL CONVERSATION Misunderstanding may be the ultimate obstacle to communication (Griffin, 2k: 394). Communication is said to acquire taken place when interlocutors had been able to reach some common interpretation of their intentions.
Even in intra-group communication it is almost impossible to achieve absolute understanding. This makes inter-group or inter-cultural communication a lot more challenging. The existence of cultural variability is in itself a obstacle to intercultural communication. When cultures happen to be widely apart or different, it means the degree of cultural variability is excessive, resulting in high levels of anxiety and uncertainness, which finally bring stress and misconception into the intercultural communication condition. To illustrate: I offered a gift to a colleague who also came from a different cultural history.
My requirement was a long response of appreciation from him. My disappointment was with all the left hand which he took the gift and the quick appreciation he expressed. This individual didn’t just like, or he didn’t worth it. I used to be worried he’d not become nice towards me once again. All these understanding I built reflected my own uncertainty regarding his activities and my own anxiety reflected my be anxious and apprehensions about what may happened. My cultural context reflects an increased context key in which even more attention is given to interpretation nonverbal behaviors.
By well-defined contrast my personal colleague hailed from a low cultural context which stresses direct and specific communication, that may be, verbal messages are essential in a communication process. 15 Mistranslation Obstacles to verbal communication include cultural mistranslation (Tubbs and Moss, 1994). This is prevalent in second and foreign language context. Students are divided over just how such mistranslation should be perceived (Kachru, 1990). While some possess described mistranslation in derogatory terms like “interference and “sub-standard forms, others possess perceived these people as improvements which echo cultural aspect.
But the reality is that in intercultural conversation mistranslation undermines understanding. Exacto translation just like “I will come rather than “I shall return may be sources of misunderstanding. Expressions such as “I am going to greet the king or perhaps “to the white house or “to the end room (meaning “I am going to the toilet) happen to be cultural innovations that can be causes of misunderstanding in inter social communication. Best practice rules and Jobs Norms are culturally identified rules pertaining to determining acceptable and ideal behaviour (Tubbs and Moss, 1994).
They include the ones that govern cultural situations and conversational routines such as hello, making asks for, and expressing various thoughts. In intercultural communication interlocutors may be enticed to transfer their cultural norms to contexts that are not appropriate (Richards and Sukwiwat, 1983). Jobs are also sources of cultural variability. Roles are sets of norms relevant to certain groups of persons in world. In a particular culture, different roles will be assigned to men and women, kids and parents/guardians, usbands and wives, and so on. In some Ghanaian contexts women are expected to kneel while talking to males, subjects simply cannot talk right to a key except through linguists. Infractions of these tasks may create serious dangers to intercultural communication. 10 Beliefs and Values Beliefs and ideals impede understanding in intercultural communication. Some interlocutors will not be forthright with information on personal ambition, financial situation, and career plans due to their beliefs, specifically beliefs that assert strong influence from the supernatural upon man.
Values in witchcraft, for instance, will scare people from handing out personal information to strangers. However, people will usually quickly communicate their particular values and feelings, in particular when such principles are staying disrespected. Stereotyping Stereotypes are our benefit judgements regarding people (Pang, 2001: 114). They are created out of our inadequate information about people, producing us produce unintelligent selections in our intercultural communication. Ethnical stereotypes, similar to other sort of stereotypes, impede understanding mainly because they exaggerate or overgeneralize what we understand about people (Tubbs and Moss, 1994).
Overgeneralised thoughts result in misinterpretation of activities, thus increasing anxiety, the industry threat to understanding. Just about everyone imposes one stereotype or maybe the other in individuals or groups of persons. Stereotypes could be favourable or unfavourable into a group (Pang, 2001). A lot of stereotypes include perceiving a few groups since quick tempered, dishonest, wise, and liars. Generally, stereotypes are born out of our fear of the group we all stereotype and also the lack of understanding of the group, or beliefs, or excessive levels of social variability (Pang, 2001).
The media can be unfortunately perceived as a strong marketer of stereotypes (Tubbs and Moss, year 1994, Pang, 2001). This is because the media is known as a major supply of information about foreign people or unknown people. As we watch movies or international news we all form high opinions regarding the 12 groups displayed. Usually the number of information all of us gather is restricted thus leading us to create such not enough conclusions. Dispelling stereotypes appears almost impossible, in addition to intercultural interaction the challenge to dispel stereotypes is much more profound.
Nevertheless , since stereotypes are born out of inadequate ethnical information or perhaps experience of other cultures, cultural awareness and intercultural training can be helpful in working with cultural stereotypes. Ethnocentrism Our very own cultural encounter inadvertently triggers us to feel that lifestyle is natural. Hence we could forced to feel or think that our group’s way of life is a standard against which other groups’ culture should be examined. Therefore any contrary code or behavior is considered inappropriate or irresponsible or noteworthy motivated (Hall, 1976, cited in Tubbs and Tree, 1994: 443).
This inclination to judge the code of other civilizations by using our culture as the normal is identified as ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism creeps into intercultural conversation to filter understanding by simply heightening anxiety, which, because shown, is known as a threat to understanding (Stephan and Stephan, 1992). The larger the level of ethnocentrism, the higher the amount of anxiety. Cross-cultural awareness is usually can go far to reduce ethnocentrism and, invariably, anxiety and enhance the capacity to deal with intercultural interaction in methods.
CURRICULA CONCOURS Curriculum identifies the totality of the experience the school presents learners. It provides both designed and unplanned activities, the physical and socio-cultural environment which impact directly or indirectly around the learner. This kind of paper offers that the college, through the curriculum, help to make conscious initiatives at endorsing intercultural training. Below are the interventions recommended: 13 Modern Education While using world shrinking into a global village, nations around the world, businesses, colleges, organizations, and our communities at large are becoming culturally different (Spring, 2002).
On daily basis we could compelled simply by globalization to interact or relate with people of different social origin. To deal with the problems of cultural diversity you have the need for our schools to take on the multicultural educational procedure. Multicultural education is not just hotel different cultures in a school setting. Alternatively multicultural education aims at providing an permitting school environment which lets learners to operate in other tradition without losing jewelry with their unique culture (Spring, 2002).
A multicultural university environment includes learners of different cultural qualifications for the purpose of equipping them with skills, knowledge, and attitudes that can help them functional both to themselves also to the larger culture. Such settings are better posed to reply more effectively to children of various cultural qualification and exploit those variations as footings on which new learning can be built (Tozer, Violas, and Senese 2001). Multicultural education directly or indirectly lets learners to be able to manage the uncertainty and anxiety that always characterise intercultural communication.
Gudykunst’s axiom 37 asserts that when we reveal a common goal with unknown people our stress levels reduce and we are able to build the needed self confidence in predicting their actions. At the extremely superficial level, just piecing together people of various cultural beginning under the common goal of schooling or perhaps education would help reduce misunderstanding that usually comes from uncertainty and anxiety (Griffin, 200: 401) 14 A multicultural curriculum offers an good educational environment for learners to learn more about people of various other cultures, thus reducing stereotypes and ethnocentric tendencies.
Stereotypes results from limited experience or information about additional cultures. If perhaps learners get to experience different learners of different cultural experience they find out about their civilizations. In Ghana, until recently, secondary colleges and schools were characterised by registrants of different social backgrounds. This kind of provided true opportunities for individuals to appreciate the cultural diversity of the country. Though each school was culturally diverse there been around a strong common bound in each university, especially during inter collegiate competitions.
Below diversity very well managed provides unity. This example is unfortunately being changed by I actually proposed that when community schools, which are generally widely homogenous. community schools are established educational systems will need to promote diversity in the positing of pupils to school and colleges. Social Studies Recently, cultural research was a subject in standard schools in Ghana and learners had been exposed to the diverse ethnic groups near your vicinity. Beneficiaries of the curriculum obtained basic understanding of the different ethnical groups.
That were there the opportunity to acquire, among other things, understanding of conventional program differences, variations in political corporations and beliefs. A unique feature of the ethnical studies subjects was the strategy. Teachers were encouraged to work with resource individuals in their neighborhoods. These were indigenes of the cultures being symbolized or educated. Again, position plays, field trips and audio visible materials were included in the instructing methods of the subject.
Cultural research provided a platform pertaining to learners to juxtapose all their culture with others in order to appreciate the selection and its prospective customers, especially in this kind of age of globalisation. 15 Ethnic knowledge reduces “cultural shock which sometimes leads to adverse attitude to a new culture (DeVito, 2002). Gudykunst’s axiom 41 facilitates the view that the increase in each of our knowledge of strangers’ language and culture is going to produce a rise in our ability to manage each of our anxiety and an increase in the ability to accurately predict their behaviour (Griffin, 2000: 400).
Certainly there are enough reasons behind the add-on of social studies in our school program. The Study of Books Literature being a discipline offers an ideal possibility to integrate ethnic content in the school curriculum (Pang, 2001: 224). Although providing pleasure and enjoyment, literature sharpens our imaginations while offering us a vicarious knowledge in the world we live in (Huck, Helper, Hickman, and Kiefer, 2001: 8). Literature offers us the fastest, cheapest, but the most thrilling luxury cruise around the world. The knowledge we enjoy in literatures is usually timeless even as read via across the globe.
We could also travel as far back as the era of Beowulf, Sophocles, Chaucer, and Shakespeare or perhaps fly into the year 2044 in Welwyn Wilton Katz’s Time Ghost. In all these kinds of experiences literature offers a unique approach to learning about the traditions of people around the world, just how their lifestyle existed, how it is evolving, and how it may well change eventually. Texts which usually portray traditional intercultural communications provide visitors with the determination, knowledge, and skills to overcome anxiety, uncertainty, and other barriers of intercultural communication.
The Comprehensiveness of books experience supplies meaningful techniques for reducing stereotyping and ethnocentric tendencies. sixteen Language Educating and Learning Traditional terminology curriculums concentrate on grammatical competence while franche competence suffers neglect. Goods of these kinds of curriculums usually display excessive competence in linguistic know-how but shortage requisite skills in managing authentic interaction (Dzamishie, 97, Richards and Rogers, 1986, Richards and Sukwiwat, 1983). What they shortage is a simple understanding of the socio-cultural function of dialect.
In second and foreign language learning contexts the challenge is definitely which model learners needs to be exposed to and which terminology culture should be emphasised. Of course it makes sense to adopt the target or perhaps native presenter model, considering the cultural parts, as medium of training. But such a choice with out recourse for the changing connection needs of learners will never be appropriate. To deal with the situation of which style to use, Norrish (1978) necessitates a liberalisation of thoughts about non standard language kinds. The The english language language, as an example, has metamorphosed into several Englishes.
Therefore , “to train only one kind of English would seem to be asking for a conflict between the several Englishes in use. (Norrish 1978: 35). The most important approach in that case is to “consider the different uses of English language in a particular country (Norrish, 1978: 35). The question ought to be: Which models will provide the conversation needs of learners? If perhaps learners require English to communicate with native speakers, then a native style should be taught. Similarly, if learners might largely connect in a standard Ghanaian circumstance, for instance, then the Ghanaian model, with its social innovations, need to be the model.
In so far as it is possible, multiple model must be taught. This is the poly-model Norrish proposes. The poly-model exposes 17 scholars to the tradition behind terminology. It emphasises socio-cultural or contextual understanding in connection especially among inter-groups. Concerning approach, the communicative terminology teaching model is popular today (Richards and Rogers, 1986, Dzameshie 1997). This approach focuses on expansive competence. Their curriculum is usually experience-based and learner-centred (Richards and Rogers, 1986).
This content generally contains “well-selected experiences that reveal the real lifestyle or genuine communication requirements of learners (Richard and Rogers, 1986). The value of this method in intercultural communication is a experience the vocabulary curriculum gives. Communicative terminology teaching address learners’ language needs, installing them to connect effectively within a world of ethnical diversity. The New Media in their classroom The modern age is not only making it simpler and quicker for us to get nearer to each other, additionally it is making it possible for all of us to see and know what other folks are doing.
The brand new media in their classroom provides learners with a window through which they can see people of additional cultures. Through virtual excursions to spots of different social backgrounds, documentaries, interviews, and social sites, learners bridge the gap of knowledge that they know about persons on the other side with their culture. The prospects are tremendous but the challenges will be enormous. The digital divide is still also wide for all of us to be able to check out other ethnicities. In many growing countries use of the new media is still a extravagance. 18
IMPLICATIONS The addition of intercultural training in our school subjects is worthwhile intended for our universities, and the regarding work, that happen to be fast becoming broadly diverse. Unfortunately many pupils, teachers, and school government bodies are being frustrated by the diversity invading the school. Schooling learners and educators to manage the obstacles diversity makes in their intercultural relationships will certainly transform our schools in peaceful and conducive learning and working environments although preparing learners to face the communication realities in the world away from school.
Intercultural training will certainly link the school with industry or the regarding work. In case the school supplies adequate intercultural training through various curricular activities, it will reduce the ethnical shock learners are sure to face following school. Although many disciplines are craving intended for attention and inclusion in our school programs and subjects developers happen to be overwhelmed with what should be in which at what time and using what resource, the very best decision lies in counting the price, weighing the alternatives available and taking daring political and socio-economic methods.
Implementing these types of curricula concours would involve the modification of the school curriculum, bearing in mind various demands and interests. In this case there ought to be a clear coverage framework that will guide design and style, implantation, and evaluation from the new program being proposed. Again, there would be the need to sufficiently resources each of our schools to support the changes suggested. CONCLUSION This paper provides proposed which the school curriculum provide space for activities that will educate learners to overcome barriers inherent in intercultural connection.
There could be a great many other interventions, but what this conventional paper seeks to suggest is that interventions throughout the school nineteen curriculum need to be the first option. Neither educational level nor geographical restrictions are particular in this daily news. This is delivered out of the perception that intercultural relation or communication can be real and knows not any limits. This kind of paper has provided reason for the inclusion in our school curriculum training in intercultural communication. The next challenge that will attract the interest of research workers is how you can design, implement, and evaluate the propose curricula change.
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